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Methodology for Study of Rockfalls in Urban Areas – Computer Modeling and Mitigation in Algodonales, Spain
Corresponding Author(s) : Juan Manuel Pardo
Geomatics and Environmental Engineering,
Vol. 18 No. 5 (2024): Geomatics and Environmental Engineering
Abstract
Rockfalls in urban areas can cause significant damage. Without direct observation, it is difficult to reconstruct the specific details of an event. The study of rockfalls requires analyses of the source areas, slope parameters, blocks characteristics (size, shape, and mass), and the likely movements of independent blocks along their trajectories (free-falling, rolling, sliding, and rebounding). This article will propose a feasible methodology for the study of rockfalls based on identifiable parameters, conditioning factors (geology, geomorphology, geomechanical, hydrogeology, climate, and biology), and triggering factors (climate and dynamic loads). This article proposes the use of modeling programs to facilitate rockfall research and data management. The study of conditioning factors allows researchers to state several coefficients (restitution, surface roughness, rolling resistance, and friction) that one inputs into a modeling program, allowing researchers to obtain the representative results that are needed to design effective remedial measures. The methodology has been successfully applied to the urban area of Algodonales (Province of Cádiz, Spain).
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- Leine R.I., Schweizer A., Christen M., Glover J., Bartelt P., Gerber W.: Simulation of rockfall trajectories with consideration of rock shape. Multibody System Dynamics, vol. 32(2), 2014, pp. 241–271. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11044-013-9393-4.
- Massaro L., Forte G., De Falco M., Rauseo F., Santo A.: Rockfall source identification and trajectory analysis from UAV-based data in volcano-tectonic areas: a case study from Ischia Island, Southern Italy. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment, vol. 83(3), 2024, 75. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-024-03569-1.
- Sari M.: Evaluating rockfalls at a historical settlement in the Ihlara Valley (Cappadocia, Turkey) using kinematic, numerical, 2D trajectory, and risk rating methods. Journal of Mountain Science, vol. 19(12), 2022, pp. 3346–3369. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-022-7412-8.
- Sarro R., Riquelme A., García-Davalillo J.C., Mateos R.M., Tomás R., Pastor J.L., Cano M., Herrera G.: Rockfall simulation based on UAV photogrammetry data obtained during an emergency declaration: Application at a cultural heritage site. Remote Sensing, vol. 10(12), 2018, 1923. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10121923.
- Topal T., Akin M., Ozden U.A.: Assessment of rockfall hazard around Afyon Castle, Turkey. Environmental Geology, vol. 53(1), 2007, pp. 191–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-006-0633-2.
- Heim A.: Ueber Bergstürze. Verlag von J. Wurster & Cie, Zürich 1882.
- Ritchie A.M.: Evaluation of Rockfall and Its Control. Highway Research Record, No. 17, Highway Research Board, Washington, D.C., 1963, pp. 13–28. http://onlinepubs.trb.org/Onlinepubs/hrr/1963/17/17-002.pdf.
- Broili L.: Ein Felssturz im Grossversuch. [in:] Müller-Salzburg L. (ed.), Felsmechanische Grundlagenforschung Standsicherheit von Böschungen und Hohlraumbauten in Fels / Basic Research in Rock Mechanics Stability of Rock Slopes and Underground Excavations, Rock Mechanics / Felsmechanik / Mécanique des Roches, vol. 3. Springer, Vienna 1974, pp. 69–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-8372-4_9.
- John K.W., Spang R.M.: Steinschläge und Felsstürze: Voraussetzungen – Mechanismen – Sicherungen. Vortrag UIC-Tagung, Kandersteg 1979.
- Tang J., Zhou X., Liang K., Lai Y., Zhou G., Tan J.: Experimental study on the coefficient of restitution for the rotational sphere rockfall. Environmental Earth Sciences, vol. 80(11), 2021, 419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09684-6.
- Chau K.T., Wong R.H.C., Liu J., Wu J.J., Lee C.F.: Shape effects on the coefficient of restitution during rockfall impacts. Paper presented at the 9th ISRM Congress, Paris, France, August 1999, ISRM-9CONGRESS-1999-111.
- Spang R.M.: Protection against rockfall – Stepchild in the design of rock slopes. Paper presented at the 6th ISRM Congress, Montreal, Canada, August 1987, ISRM-6CONGRESS-1987-101.
- Estudio sobre el desprendimiento de rocas en la localidad de Algodonales (Cádiz). Code 01295, The repository of Geological Survey of Spain (Instituto Tecnológico Geominero de España, ITGE).
- González de Vallejo L.I., Ferrer M.: Engineering Geology. CRC Press, London 2011. https://doi.org/10.1201/b11745.
- Duncan C.W.: Foundations on Rock. Chapman & Hall, London 1992.
- Rahn P.H.: Engineering Geology: An Environmental Approach. Elsevier, 1986.
- Walthan A.C.: Foundations of Engineering Geology. E & FN Spon, London – New York 1999.
- Hoek E., Bray J.: Rock Slope Engineering. 3rd ed. Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London 1981.
- Jaeger Ch.: Rock Mechanics and Engineering. Cambridge University, Press 1972.
- Keefer D.K.: Landslides caused by earthquakes. Geological Society of America Bulletin, vol. 95(4), 1984, pp. 406–421.
- Bozdağ A.: Rockfall hazard assessment in a natural and historical site: The case of ancient Kilistra settlement (Konya), Turkey. Journal of Mountain Science, vol. 19(1), 2022, pp. 151–166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-021-6961-6.
- Kanari M., Katz O., Weinberger R., Porat N., Marco S.: Evaluating earthquake-induced rockfall hazard near the Dead Sea Transform. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, vol. 19(3), 2019, pp. 889–906. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-19-889-2019.
- Schilirò L., Massaro L., Forte G., Santo A., Tommasi P.: Analysis of earthquake-triggered landslides through an integrated unmanned aerial vehicle-based approach: A case study from Central Italy. Remote Sensing, vol. 16(1), 2024, 93. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16010093.
- Santi P.M., Russell C.P., Higgins J.D. Spriet J.I.: Modification and statistical analysis of the Colorado Rockfall Hazard Rating System. Engineering Geology, vol. 104(1–2), 2009, pp. 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.08.009.
- Spang R.M.: Rockfall 6.1 Manual. March 2003.
- Bozzolo D., Pamini R.: Simulation of rock falls down a valley side. Acta Mechanica, vol. 63(1–4), 1986, pp. 113–130. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01182543.
- Norma de Construcción Sismorresistente: Parte General y Edificación (NCSE-02). Boletín Oficial del Estado, 11.10.2002, Núm. 244, Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del Estado, Madrid 2002. https://www.boe.es/eli/es/rd/2002/09/27/997/dof/spa/pdf.
- Wilson R.C., Keefer D.K.: Predicting a real limits of earthquake-induced landsliding. [in:] Ziony J.I. (ed.), Evaluating Earthquake Hazards in the Los Angeles Region – An Earth-science Perspective, Professional Paper, no. 1360, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia, 1985, pp. 317–345.
References
Leine R.I., Schweizer A., Christen M., Glover J., Bartelt P., Gerber W.: Simulation of rockfall trajectories with consideration of rock shape. Multibody System Dynamics, vol. 32(2), 2014, pp. 241–271. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11044-013-9393-4.
Massaro L., Forte G., De Falco M., Rauseo F., Santo A.: Rockfall source identification and trajectory analysis from UAV-based data in volcano-tectonic areas: a case study from Ischia Island, Southern Italy. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment, vol. 83(3), 2024, 75. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-024-03569-1.
Sari M.: Evaluating rockfalls at a historical settlement in the Ihlara Valley (Cappadocia, Turkey) using kinematic, numerical, 2D trajectory, and risk rating methods. Journal of Mountain Science, vol. 19(12), 2022, pp. 3346–3369. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-022-7412-8.
Sarro R., Riquelme A., García-Davalillo J.C., Mateos R.M., Tomás R., Pastor J.L., Cano M., Herrera G.: Rockfall simulation based on UAV photogrammetry data obtained during an emergency declaration: Application at a cultural heritage site. Remote Sensing, vol. 10(12), 2018, 1923. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10121923.
Topal T., Akin M., Ozden U.A.: Assessment of rockfall hazard around Afyon Castle, Turkey. Environmental Geology, vol. 53(1), 2007, pp. 191–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-006-0633-2.
Heim A.: Ueber Bergstürze. Verlag von J. Wurster & Cie, Zürich 1882.
Ritchie A.M.: Evaluation of Rockfall and Its Control. Highway Research Record, No. 17, Highway Research Board, Washington, D.C., 1963, pp. 13–28. http://onlinepubs.trb.org/Onlinepubs/hrr/1963/17/17-002.pdf.
Broili L.: Ein Felssturz im Grossversuch. [in:] Müller-Salzburg L. (ed.), Felsmechanische Grundlagenforschung Standsicherheit von Böschungen und Hohlraumbauten in Fels / Basic Research in Rock Mechanics Stability of Rock Slopes and Underground Excavations, Rock Mechanics / Felsmechanik / Mécanique des Roches, vol. 3. Springer, Vienna 1974, pp. 69–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-8372-4_9.
John K.W., Spang R.M.: Steinschläge und Felsstürze: Voraussetzungen – Mechanismen – Sicherungen. Vortrag UIC-Tagung, Kandersteg 1979.
Tang J., Zhou X., Liang K., Lai Y., Zhou G., Tan J.: Experimental study on the coefficient of restitution for the rotational sphere rockfall. Environmental Earth Sciences, vol. 80(11), 2021, 419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09684-6.
Chau K.T., Wong R.H.C., Liu J., Wu J.J., Lee C.F.: Shape effects on the coefficient of restitution during rockfall impacts. Paper presented at the 9th ISRM Congress, Paris, France, August 1999, ISRM-9CONGRESS-1999-111.
Spang R.M.: Protection against rockfall – Stepchild in the design of rock slopes. Paper presented at the 6th ISRM Congress, Montreal, Canada, August 1987, ISRM-6CONGRESS-1987-101.
Estudio sobre el desprendimiento de rocas en la localidad de Algodonales (Cádiz). Code 01295, The repository of Geological Survey of Spain (Instituto Tecnológico Geominero de España, ITGE).
González de Vallejo L.I., Ferrer M.: Engineering Geology. CRC Press, London 2011. https://doi.org/10.1201/b11745.
Duncan C.W.: Foundations on Rock. Chapman & Hall, London 1992.
Rahn P.H.: Engineering Geology: An Environmental Approach. Elsevier, 1986.
Walthan A.C.: Foundations of Engineering Geology. E & FN Spon, London – New York 1999.
Hoek E., Bray J.: Rock Slope Engineering. 3rd ed. Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London 1981.
Jaeger Ch.: Rock Mechanics and Engineering. Cambridge University, Press 1972.
Keefer D.K.: Landslides caused by earthquakes. Geological Society of America Bulletin, vol. 95(4), 1984, pp. 406–421.
Bozdağ A.: Rockfall hazard assessment in a natural and historical site: The case of ancient Kilistra settlement (Konya), Turkey. Journal of Mountain Science, vol. 19(1), 2022, pp. 151–166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-021-6961-6.
Kanari M., Katz O., Weinberger R., Porat N., Marco S.: Evaluating earthquake-induced rockfall hazard near the Dead Sea Transform. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, vol. 19(3), 2019, pp. 889–906. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-19-889-2019.
Schilirò L., Massaro L., Forte G., Santo A., Tommasi P.: Analysis of earthquake-triggered landslides through an integrated unmanned aerial vehicle-based approach: A case study from Central Italy. Remote Sensing, vol. 16(1), 2024, 93. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16010093.
Santi P.M., Russell C.P., Higgins J.D. Spriet J.I.: Modification and statistical analysis of the Colorado Rockfall Hazard Rating System. Engineering Geology, vol. 104(1–2), 2009, pp. 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.08.009.
Spang R.M.: Rockfall 6.1 Manual. March 2003.
Bozzolo D., Pamini R.: Simulation of rock falls down a valley side. Acta Mechanica, vol. 63(1–4), 1986, pp. 113–130. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01182543.
Norma de Construcción Sismorresistente: Parte General y Edificación (NCSE-02). Boletín Oficial del Estado, 11.10.2002, Núm. 244, Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del Estado, Madrid 2002. https://www.boe.es/eli/es/rd/2002/09/27/997/dof/spa/pdf.
Wilson R.C., Keefer D.K.: Predicting a real limits of earthquake-induced landsliding. [in:] Ziony J.I. (ed.), Evaluating Earthquake Hazards in the Los Angeles Region – An Earth-science Perspective, Professional Paper, no. 1360, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia, 1985, pp. 317–345.