Date Log
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Hydrochemical Assessment of Groundwater in Ludhiana and Amritsar Districts of Punjab and Identification of Fluoride Hotspots using GIS
Corresponding Author(s) : Neeta Raj Sharma
Geomatics and Environmental Engineering,
Vol. 18 No. 5 (2024): Geomatics and Environmental Engineering
Abstract
High fluoride concentrations in soil, water, or air can pose serious environmental and health risks to plants, and animals. Along with other hydrochemical parameters, this study investigates fluoride concentrations in the groundwater in the Ludhiana and Amritsar districts of Punjab, India. A total of 222 water samples were uniformly collected at approximately five-kilometer intervals for hydrochemical analyses. Statistical methods such as inverse distance weighting (IDW) and correlation matrices were used to assess the fluoride distribution and its relationships with other parameters. According to WHO guidelines, most fluoride concentrations were below 0.6 ppm in Ludhiana (84.30%) and Amritsar (77.23%). Fluoride levels that were within the permissible range (0.6–1.5 ppm) were found in 15.70% of Ludhiana’s samples and 21.78% of Amritsar’s samples; only 1% of Amritsar’s samples exceeded the permissible limit (>1.5 ppm). The water quality index (WQI) analysis indicated that
0.83% of the groundwater samples from the Ludhiana district and 4.95% from the Amritsar district were unfit for consumption. This study demonstrates the importance of standardized sample collection and the use of GIS technology for comprehensive hydrochemical assessments, raising awareness and reducing health risks.
Keywords
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)BibTeX
- Apambire W.B., Boyle D.R., Michel F.A.: Geochemistry, genesis, and health implications of fluoriferous groundwaters in the upper regions of Ghana. Environmental Geology, vol. 33(1), 1997, pp. 13–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002540050221.
- Araya F., Vasquez S.: Challenges, drivers, and benefits to integrated infrastructure management of water, wastewater, stormwater and transportation systems. Sustainable Cities and Society, vol. 82, 2022, 103913. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2022.103913.
- Handa B.K.: Geochemistry and genesis of fluoride‐containing ground waters in India. Groundwater, vol. 13(3), 1975, pp. 275–281. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1975.tb03086.x.
- Ozsvath D.L.: Fluoride and environmental health: A review. Reviews in Environmental Science and Biotechnology vol. 8(1), 2009, pp. 59–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-008-9136-9.
- BIS: Drinking Water – Specification (Second Revision) (IS 10500:2012). Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi 2012.
- Subba R.N., Ravindra B., Wu J.: Geochemical and health risk evaluation of fluoride rich groundwater in Sattenapalle Region, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Hum. ecol. risk assess.: Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, vol. 26(9), 2020, pp. 2316–2348. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2020.1741338.
- Xu P., Qian H., Li S., Li W., Chen J., Liu Y.: Geochemical evidence of fluoride behavior in loess and its influence on seepage characteristics: An experimental study. Science of the Total Environment, vol. 882, 2023, 163564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163564.
- Alam A., Kumar A., Singh A.: A GIS approach for groundwater quality evaluation with entropy method and fluoride exposure with health risk assessment. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, vol. 46(2), 2024, 47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-023-01822-2.
- Marghade D., Malpe D.B., Rao N.S., Sunitha B.: Geochemical assessment of fluoride enriched groundwater and health implications from a part of Yavtmal District, India. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, vol. 26(3), 2019. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1528862.
- Shaji E., Sarath K.V., Santosh M., Krishnaprasad P.K., Arya B.K., Babu M.S.: Fluoride contamination in groundwater: A global review of the status, processes, challenges, and remedial measures. Geoscience Frontiers, vol. 15(2), 2024, 101734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2023.101734.
- Teng Y., Zhang J., Zhang Z., Feng J.: The effect of chronic fluorosis on calcium ions and CaMKIIα, and c‐fos expression in the rat hippocampus. Biological Trace Element Research, vol. 182(2), 2018, pp. 295–302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-017-1098-8.
- Medjani F., Djidel M., Labar S., Bouchagoura L., Rezzag Bara C.: Groundwater physico‐chemical properties and water quality changes in shallow aquifers in arid saline wetlands, Ouargla, Algeria. Applied Water Science, vol.11(5), 2021, 82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-021-01415-3.
- Barbieri M., Barberio M.D., Banzato F., Billi A., Boschetti T., Franchini S., Gori F., Petitta M.: Climate change and its effect on groundwater quality. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, vol. 45(4), 2023, pp. 1133–1144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-021-01140-5.
- Honarbakhsh A., Tahmoures M., Tashayo B., Mousazadeh M., Ingram B., Ostovari Y.: GIS‐based assessment of groundwater quality for drinking purpose in northern part of Fars province, Marvdasht. Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology – AQUA, vol. 68(3), 2019, pp. 187–196. https://doi.org/10.2166/aqua.2019.119.
- Jung Y.J., Khant N.A., Kim H., Namkoong S.: Impact of climate change on waterborne diseases: Directions towards sustainability. Water, vol. 15(7), 2023, 1298. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15071298.
- Beg M.K., Kumar N., Srivastava S.K., Carranza E.J.: Interpretation of fluoride groundwater contamination in Tamnar area, Raigarh, Chhattisgarh, India. Earth, vol. 4(3), 2023, pp. 626–654. https://doi.org/10.3390/earth4030033.
- Narsimha A., Sudarshan V.J.A.W.S.: Contamination of fluoride in groundwater and its effect on human health: A case study in hard rock aquifers of Siddipet, Telangana State, India. Applied Water Science, vol. 7(5), 2017, pp. 2501–2512. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-016-0441-0.
- Goyal D., Haritash A.K., Singh S.K.: Hydrogeochemical characterisation and geospatial analysis of groundwater for drinking water quality in Ludhiana district of Punjab, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, vol. 195(6), 2023, 653. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-11220-x.
- Arveti N., Sarma M.R.S., Aitkenhead-Peterson J.A., Sunil K.: Fluoride incidence in groundwater: A case study from Talupula, Andhra Pradesh, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, vol. 172(1–4), 2011, pp. 427–443. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1345-3.
- Choubisa S.L., Choubisa D., Choubisa A.: Fluoride contamination of groundwater and its threat to health of villagers and their domestic animals and agriculture crops in rural Rajasthan, India. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, vol. 45(3), 2023, pp. 607–628. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-022-01267-z.
- Raj D., Shaji E.: Fluoride contamination in groundwater resources of Alleppey, southern India. Geoscience Frontiers, vol. 8(1), 2017, pp. 117–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2016.01.002.
- Mukherjee I., Singh U.K.: Groundwater fluoride contamination, probable release, and containment mechanisms: A review on Indian context. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, vol. 40(6), 2018, pp. 2259–2301. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-018-0096-x.
- Kaur L., Rishi M.S., Chaudhary B.S., Sharma S., Pandey S.: Groundwater hydrogeochemistry and non‐carcinogenic health risk assessment in major river basins of Punjab, India. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 30(53), 2023, pp. 113335–113363. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-30157-9.
- Li Y., Zhang M., Mi W., Ji L., He Q., Xie S., Xiao C., Bi Y.: Spatial distribution of groundwater fluoride and arsenic and its related disease in typical drinking endemic regions. Science of the Total Environment, vol. 906, 2024, 167716. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167716.
- Huang S., Guo J., Xie Y., Bian R., Wang N., Qi W., Liu H.: Distribution, sources, and potential health risks of fluoride, total iodine, and nitrate in rural drinking water sources of North and East China. Science of the Total Environment, vol. 898, 2023, 165561. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165561.
- Ahada C.P., Suthar S.: Assessment of human health risk associated with high groundwater fluoride intake in southern districts of Punjab, India. Exposure and Health, vol. 11(4), 2019, pp. 267–275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-017-0268-4.
- Charizopoulos N., Zagana E., Psilovikos A.: Assessment of natural and anthropogenic impacts in groundwater, utilizing multivariate statistical analysis and inverse distance weighted interpolation modeling: The case of a Scopia basin (Central Greece). Environmental Earth Sciences, vol. 77(10), 2018, 380. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7564-6.
- Hossain M., Patra P.K., Ghosh B., Khatun A., Nayek S.: Sensitive assessment of groundwater‐associated, multi‐exposure health hazards in a fluoride‐enriched region of West Bengal, India. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, vol. 43(11), 2021, pp. 4515–4532. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-021-00942-x.
- Rahman M.M., Bodrud-Doza M., Siddiqua M.T., Zahid A., Islam A.R.M.T.: Spatiotemporal distribution of fluoride in drinking water and associated probabilistic human health risk appraisal in the coastal region, Bangladesh. Science of the Total Environment, vol. 724, 2020, 138316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138316.
- Ismail S., Ahmed M.F., Bakar M.Z.A.: Assessing the impact of urbanization on groundwater quality of Lahore region, Pakistan. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 30(35), 2023, pp. 83929–83949. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-28400-4.
- Ram A., Tiwari S.K., Pandey H.K., Chaurasia A.K., Singh S., Singh Y.V.: Groundwater quality assessment using water quality index (WQI) under GIS framework. Applied Water Science, vol. 11(2), 2021, 46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-021-01376-7.
- Patel P.S., Pandya D.M., Shah M.: A systematic and comparative study of Water Quality Index (WQI) for groundwater quality analysis and assessment. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 30(19), 2023, pp. 54303–54323. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-25936-3.
- Magesh N.S., Krishnakumar S., Chandrasekar N., Soundranayagam J.P.: Groundwater quality assessment using WQI and GIS techniques, Dindigul district, Tamil Nadu, India. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, vol. 6(11), 2013, pp. 4179–4189. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-012-0673-8.
- Thakur L.S., Mondal P.: Techno‐economic evaluation of simultaneous arsenic and fluoride removal from synthetic groundwater by electrocoagulation process: Optimization through response surface methodology. Desalination and Water Treatment, vol. 57(59), 2016, pp. 28847–28863. https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2016.1186564.
- Virk H.S.: A study of groundwater contamination of Patiala district as a ‘Hot Spot’ in Punjab. Journal of Water Pollution & Purification Research, vol. 10(1), 2023, pp. 1–13.
- Sharma D.A., Keesari T., Rishi M.S., Pant D.: A study on the role of hydrogeology on the distribution of uranium in alluvial aquifers of northwest India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, vol. 190(12), 2018, 746. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-018-7112-6.
- CGWB: Ground Water Year Book: National Capital Territory, Delhi 2019–2020. Government of India, Central Ground Water Board, State Unit Office, Delhi, March 2021. https://www.cgwb.gov.in/old_website/Regions/NCT/GWYB_2019-2020_Final.pdf [access: 26.08.2024].
- Krishan G., Lohani A.K., Rao M.S., Kumar S., Takshi K.S.: Spatiotemporal variability analysis of groundwater level for water resources development and management in Northern Punjab, India. Journal of Environmental & Analytical Toxicology, vol. 5(4), 2015, 279. https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0525.1000279.
- Krishan G., Rao M.S., Loyal R.S., Lohani A.K., Tuli N.K., Takshi K.S., Kumar C.P., Semwal P., Kumar S.: Groundwater level analyses of Punjab, India: A quantitative approach. Octa Journal of Environmental Research, vol. 2(3), 2014, pp. 221–226.
- Kochhar A., Singh H., Sahoo S., Litoria P.K., Pateriya, B.: Prediction and forecast of pre‐monsoon and post‐monsoon groundwater level: Using deep learning and statistical modelling. Modeling Earth Systems and Environment, vol. 8(2), 2022, pp. 2317–2329. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-021-01235-z.
- Sharma V., Singh M.J., Khokhar A.K.: Productivity, nutrient uptake and soil properties as influenced by integrated nutrient management in maize‐wheat cropping system under rainfed conditions of sub‐montane Punjab. Agricultural Research Journal, vol. 57(6), 2020, pp. 839–847. https://doi.org/10.5958/2395-146X.2020.00123.4.
- Haroon U., Bilal B., Aijaz A., Ashraf S., Muksit Q., Sharma A.: Study of soil properties of Northern Hills (Kashmir ) in comparison to the soil properties of Northern Plains (Punjab). International Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research, vol. 8(4), 2021, pp. 1188–1193.
- Vashisht B.B., Maharjan B., Sharma S., Kaur S.: Soil quality and its potential indicators under different land use systems in the Shivaliks of Indian Punjab. Sustainability, vol. 12(8), 2020, 3490. https://doi.org/10.3390/SU12083490.
- Jamil M., Akhtar N., Iqbal M.M., Khan M.U.H., Muslim N., Qazi M.A.: Indexing of physico‐chemical variables and fertility status of district Sahiwal soils, Punjab, Pakistan. Soil and Environment, vol. 40(1), 2021, pp. 95–101. https://doi.org/10.25252/SE/2021/202520.
- Liu J., Gao Z., Zhang Y., Sun Z., Sun T., Fan H., Wu B., Li M., Qian L.: Hydrochemical evaluation of groundwater quality and human health risk assessment of nitrate in the largest peninsula of China based on high‐density sampling: A case study of Weifang. Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 322, 2021, 129164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.129164.
- Huang J., Chen H., Zheng Y., Yang Y., Zhang Y, Gao B.: Microplastic pollution in soils and groundwater: Characteristics, analytical methods and impacts. Chemical Engineering Journal, vol. 425, 2021, 131870. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.131870.
- Rice E.W., Baird R.B., Eaton A.D. (eds.): Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 23rd ed., American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, Water Environment Federation, Washington, D.C., 2017.
- Sarma R., Singh S.K.: Assessment of groundwater quality and human health risks of nitrate and fluoride contamination in a rapidly urbanizing region of India. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 30(19), 2023, pp. 55437–55454. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-26204-0.
- Mompelat S., Jaffrézic A., Jardé E., Le Bot B.: Storage of natural water samples and preservation techniques for pharmaceutical quantification. Talanta, vol. 109, 2013, pp. 31–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2013.01.042.
- Nyakilla E.E., Silingi S.N., Shen C., Jun G., Mulashani A.K., Chibura P.E.: Evaluation of source rock potentiality and prediction of total organic carbon using well log data and integrated methods of multivariate analysis, machine learning, and geochemical analysis. Natural Resources Research, vol. 31(1), 2022, pp. 619–641. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11053-021-09988-1.
- Sreedevi P.D., Ahmed S., Madé B., Ledoux E., Gandolfi J.M.: Association of hydrogeological factors in temporal variations of fluoride concentration in a crystalline aquifer in India. Environmental Geology, vol. 50(1), 2006, pp. 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-005-0167-z.
- Baak M., Koopman R., Snoek H., Klous S.: A new correlation coefficient between categorical, ordinal and interval variables with Pearson characteristics. Computational Statistics and Data Analysis, vol. 152, 2020, 107043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csda.2020.107043.
- Hazra A., Gogtay N.: Biostatistics series module 6: Correlation and linear regression. Indian Journal of Dermatology, vol. 61(6), 2016, pp. 593–601. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5154.193662.
- Mamatha P., Rao S.M.: Geochemistry of fluoride rich groundwater in Kolar and Tumkur Districts of Karnataka. Environmental Earth Science, vol. 61(1), 2010, pp. 131–142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-009-0331-y.
- Bouslah S., Djemili L., Houichi L.: Water quality index assessment of Koudiat Medouar Reservoir, northeast Algeria using weighted arithmetic index method. Journal of Water and Land Development, vol. 35(1), 2017, 221. https://doi.org/10.1515/jwld-2017-0087.
- Brown R.M., McClelland N.I., Deininger R.A., O’Connor M.F.: A water quality index – crashing the Psychological Barrier. [in:] Thomas W.A. (ed.), Indicators of Environmental Quality: Proceedings of a symposium held during the AAAS meeting in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, December 26–31, 1971, Environmental Science Research, vol. 1, Plenum Press, New York – London 1972, pp. 173–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-2856-8_15.
- Lloyd C.: Spatial Data Analysis: An Introduction for GIS Users. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2010.
- Moharir K.N., Pande C.B., Gautam V.K., Singh S.K., Rane N.L.: Integration of hydrogeological data, GIS and AHP techniques applied to delineate groundwater potential zones in sandstone, limestone and shales rocks of the Damoh district, (MP) central India. Environmental Research, vol. 228, 2023, 115832. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2023.115832.
- Rajesh H.M.: Application of remote sensing and GIS in mineral resource mapping – an overview. Journal of Mineralogical and Petrological Sciences, vol. 99(3), 2004, pp. 83–103. https://doi.org/10.2465/jmps.99.83.
- Nur A., Ishaku J.M., Yusuf S.N.: Groundwater flow patterns and hydrochemical facies distribution using geographical information system (GIS) in Damaturu, Northeast Nigeria. International Journal of Geosciences, vol. 3(5), 2012, pp. 1096–1106. https://doi.org/10.4236/ijg.2012.35111.
- Verma A., Yadav B.K., Singh N.B.: Hydrochemical monitoring of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation use in Rapti Basin. SN Applied Sciences, vol. 2(3), 2020, 460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-2267-5.
- Kumar A., Singh C.K.: Characterization of hydrogeochemical processes and fluoride enrichment in groundwater of south‐western Punjab. Water Quality, Exposure and Health, vol. 7(3), 2015, pp. 373–387. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-015-0157-7.
- Singh G., Rishi M.S., Herojeet R., Kaur L., Sharma K.: Evaluation of groundwater quality and human health risks from fluoride and nitrate in semi‐arid region of northern India. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, vol. 42(7), 2020, pp. 1833–1862. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-019-00449-6.
- Paikaray S., Chander S.: Geochemical variations in uranium and fluoride enriched saline groundwater around a semi‐arid region of SW Punjab, India. Applied Geochemistry, vol. 136, 2022, 105167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2021.105167.
- Jagadeshan G., Kalpana L., Elango L.: Major ion signatures for identification of geochemical reactions responsible for release of fluoride from geogenic sources to groundwater and associated risk in Vaniyar River basin, Dharmapuri district, Tamil Nadu, India. Environmental Earth Sciences, vol. 74(3), 2015, pp. 2439–2450. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-015-4250-9.
- Emenike C.P., Tenebe I.T., Jarvis P.: Fluoride contamination in groundwater sources in Southwestern Nigeria: Assessment using multivariate statistical approach and human health risk. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, vol. 156, 2018, pp. 391–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.03.022.
- Liu Y., Jin M., Ma B., Wang J.: Distribution and migration mechanism of fluoride in groundwater in the Manas River Basin, Northwest China. Hydrogeology Journal, vol. 26(5), 2018, pp. 1527–1546. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-018-1780-8.
- Sajil K.P.J., Jegathambal P., James E.J.: Factors influencing the high fluoride concentration in groundwater of Vellore District, South India. Environmental Earth Sciences, vol. 72(7), 2014, pp. 2437–2446. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-014-3152-6.
- Wu J., Li P., Wang D., Ren X., Wei M.: Statistical and multivariate statistical techniques to trace the sources and affecting factors of groundwater pollution in a rapidly growing city on the Chinese Loess Plateau. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, vol. 26(6), 2019, pp. 1603–1621. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2019.1594156.
- Nagaraju A., Thejaswi A., Sun L.: Statistical analysis of high fluoride groundwater hydrochemistry in Southern India: Quality assessment and Implications for source of fluoride. Environmental Engineering Science, vol. 33(7), 2016, pp. 471–477. https://doi.org/10.1089/ees.2015.0511.
- Subba R.N.: High‐fluoride groundwater. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, vol. 176(1–4), 2011, pp. 637–645. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1609-y.
- Thapa R., Gupta S., Kaur H., Baski R.: Assessment of groundwater quality scenario in respect of fluoride and nitrate contamination in and around Gharbar village, Jharkhand, India. HydroResearch, vol. 2, 2019, pp. 60–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydres.2019.09.002.
- Parkhurst D.L., Appelo C.A.J.: Description of Input and Examples for PHREEQC Version 3 – A Computer Program for Speciation, Batch‐Reaction, One‐Dimensional Transport, and Inverse Geochemical Calculations. Techniques and Methods, 6-A43, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia 2013.
- Dehghani M.H., Zarei A., Yousefi M., Asghari F.B., Haghighat G.A.: Fluoride contamination in groundwater resources in the southern Iran and its related human health risks. Desalination and Water Treatment, vol. 153, 2019, pp. 95–104. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2019.23993.
- Raghav R., Raj R., Tiwari K.K., Kandwal P.: Health concerns associated with the increased fluoride concentration in drinking water: Issues and perspectives. [in:] Yadav A.K., Shirin S., Singh V.P. (eds.), Advanced Treatment Technologies for Fluoride Removal in Water: Water Purification, Water Science and Technology Library, vol. 125, Springer, Cham 2023, pp. 233–250. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38845-3_13.
References
Apambire W.B., Boyle D.R., Michel F.A.: Geochemistry, genesis, and health implications of fluoriferous groundwaters in the upper regions of Ghana. Environmental Geology, vol. 33(1), 1997, pp. 13–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002540050221.
Araya F., Vasquez S.: Challenges, drivers, and benefits to integrated infrastructure management of water, wastewater, stormwater and transportation systems. Sustainable Cities and Society, vol. 82, 2022, 103913. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2022.103913.
Handa B.K.: Geochemistry and genesis of fluoride‐containing ground waters in India. Groundwater, vol. 13(3), 1975, pp. 275–281. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1975.tb03086.x.
Ozsvath D.L.: Fluoride and environmental health: A review. Reviews in Environmental Science and Biotechnology vol. 8(1), 2009, pp. 59–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-008-9136-9.
BIS: Drinking Water – Specification (Second Revision) (IS 10500:2012). Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi 2012.
Subba R.N., Ravindra B., Wu J.: Geochemical and health risk evaluation of fluoride rich groundwater in Sattenapalle Region, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Hum. ecol. risk assess.: Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, vol. 26(9), 2020, pp. 2316–2348. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2020.1741338.
Xu P., Qian H., Li S., Li W., Chen J., Liu Y.: Geochemical evidence of fluoride behavior in loess and its influence on seepage characteristics: An experimental study. Science of the Total Environment, vol. 882, 2023, 163564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163564.
Alam A., Kumar A., Singh A.: A GIS approach for groundwater quality evaluation with entropy method and fluoride exposure with health risk assessment. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, vol. 46(2), 2024, 47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-023-01822-2.
Marghade D., Malpe D.B., Rao N.S., Sunitha B.: Geochemical assessment of fluoride enriched groundwater and health implications from a part of Yavtmal District, India. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, vol. 26(3), 2019. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1528862.
Shaji E., Sarath K.V., Santosh M., Krishnaprasad P.K., Arya B.K., Babu M.S.: Fluoride contamination in groundwater: A global review of the status, processes, challenges, and remedial measures. Geoscience Frontiers, vol. 15(2), 2024, 101734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2023.101734.
Teng Y., Zhang J., Zhang Z., Feng J.: The effect of chronic fluorosis on calcium ions and CaMKIIα, and c‐fos expression in the rat hippocampus. Biological Trace Element Research, vol. 182(2), 2018, pp. 295–302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-017-1098-8.
Medjani F., Djidel M., Labar S., Bouchagoura L., Rezzag Bara C.: Groundwater physico‐chemical properties and water quality changes in shallow aquifers in arid saline wetlands, Ouargla, Algeria. Applied Water Science, vol.11(5), 2021, 82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-021-01415-3.
Barbieri M., Barberio M.D., Banzato F., Billi A., Boschetti T., Franchini S., Gori F., Petitta M.: Climate change and its effect on groundwater quality. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, vol. 45(4), 2023, pp. 1133–1144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-021-01140-5.
Honarbakhsh A., Tahmoures M., Tashayo B., Mousazadeh M., Ingram B., Ostovari Y.: GIS‐based assessment of groundwater quality for drinking purpose in northern part of Fars province, Marvdasht. Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology – AQUA, vol. 68(3), 2019, pp. 187–196. https://doi.org/10.2166/aqua.2019.119.
Jung Y.J., Khant N.A., Kim H., Namkoong S.: Impact of climate change on waterborne diseases: Directions towards sustainability. Water, vol. 15(7), 2023, 1298. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15071298.
Beg M.K., Kumar N., Srivastava S.K., Carranza E.J.: Interpretation of fluoride groundwater contamination in Tamnar area, Raigarh, Chhattisgarh, India. Earth, vol. 4(3), 2023, pp. 626–654. https://doi.org/10.3390/earth4030033.
Narsimha A., Sudarshan V.J.A.W.S.: Contamination of fluoride in groundwater and its effect on human health: A case study in hard rock aquifers of Siddipet, Telangana State, India. Applied Water Science, vol. 7(5), 2017, pp. 2501–2512. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-016-0441-0.
Goyal D., Haritash A.K., Singh S.K.: Hydrogeochemical characterisation and geospatial analysis of groundwater for drinking water quality in Ludhiana district of Punjab, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, vol. 195(6), 2023, 653. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-11220-x.
Arveti N., Sarma M.R.S., Aitkenhead-Peterson J.A., Sunil K.: Fluoride incidence in groundwater: A case study from Talupula, Andhra Pradesh, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, vol. 172(1–4), 2011, pp. 427–443. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1345-3.
Choubisa S.L., Choubisa D., Choubisa A.: Fluoride contamination of groundwater and its threat to health of villagers and their domestic animals and agriculture crops in rural Rajasthan, India. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, vol. 45(3), 2023, pp. 607–628. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-022-01267-z.
Raj D., Shaji E.: Fluoride contamination in groundwater resources of Alleppey, southern India. Geoscience Frontiers, vol. 8(1), 2017, pp. 117–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2016.01.002.
Mukherjee I., Singh U.K.: Groundwater fluoride contamination, probable release, and containment mechanisms: A review on Indian context. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, vol. 40(6), 2018, pp. 2259–2301. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-018-0096-x.
Kaur L., Rishi M.S., Chaudhary B.S., Sharma S., Pandey S.: Groundwater hydrogeochemistry and non‐carcinogenic health risk assessment in major river basins of Punjab, India. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 30(53), 2023, pp. 113335–113363. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-30157-9.
Li Y., Zhang M., Mi W., Ji L., He Q., Xie S., Xiao C., Bi Y.: Spatial distribution of groundwater fluoride and arsenic and its related disease in typical drinking endemic regions. Science of the Total Environment, vol. 906, 2024, 167716. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167716.
Huang S., Guo J., Xie Y., Bian R., Wang N., Qi W., Liu H.: Distribution, sources, and potential health risks of fluoride, total iodine, and nitrate in rural drinking water sources of North and East China. Science of the Total Environment, vol. 898, 2023, 165561. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165561.
Ahada C.P., Suthar S.: Assessment of human health risk associated with high groundwater fluoride intake in southern districts of Punjab, India. Exposure and Health, vol. 11(4), 2019, pp. 267–275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-017-0268-4.
Charizopoulos N., Zagana E., Psilovikos A.: Assessment of natural and anthropogenic impacts in groundwater, utilizing multivariate statistical analysis and inverse distance weighted interpolation modeling: The case of a Scopia basin (Central Greece). Environmental Earth Sciences, vol. 77(10), 2018, 380. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7564-6.
Hossain M., Patra P.K., Ghosh B., Khatun A., Nayek S.: Sensitive assessment of groundwater‐associated, multi‐exposure health hazards in a fluoride‐enriched region of West Bengal, India. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, vol. 43(11), 2021, pp. 4515–4532. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-021-00942-x.
Rahman M.M., Bodrud-Doza M., Siddiqua M.T., Zahid A., Islam A.R.M.T.: Spatiotemporal distribution of fluoride in drinking water and associated probabilistic human health risk appraisal in the coastal region, Bangladesh. Science of the Total Environment, vol. 724, 2020, 138316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138316.
Ismail S., Ahmed M.F., Bakar M.Z.A.: Assessing the impact of urbanization on groundwater quality of Lahore region, Pakistan. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 30(35), 2023, pp. 83929–83949. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-28400-4.
Ram A., Tiwari S.K., Pandey H.K., Chaurasia A.K., Singh S., Singh Y.V.: Groundwater quality assessment using water quality index (WQI) under GIS framework. Applied Water Science, vol. 11(2), 2021, 46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-021-01376-7.
Patel P.S., Pandya D.M., Shah M.: A systematic and comparative study of Water Quality Index (WQI) for groundwater quality analysis and assessment. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 30(19), 2023, pp. 54303–54323. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-25936-3.
Magesh N.S., Krishnakumar S., Chandrasekar N., Soundranayagam J.P.: Groundwater quality assessment using WQI and GIS techniques, Dindigul district, Tamil Nadu, India. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, vol. 6(11), 2013, pp. 4179–4189. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-012-0673-8.
Thakur L.S., Mondal P.: Techno‐economic evaluation of simultaneous arsenic and fluoride removal from synthetic groundwater by electrocoagulation process: Optimization through response surface methodology. Desalination and Water Treatment, vol. 57(59), 2016, pp. 28847–28863. https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2016.1186564.
Virk H.S.: A study of groundwater contamination of Patiala district as a ‘Hot Spot’ in Punjab. Journal of Water Pollution & Purification Research, vol. 10(1), 2023, pp. 1–13.
Sharma D.A., Keesari T., Rishi M.S., Pant D.: A study on the role of hydrogeology on the distribution of uranium in alluvial aquifers of northwest India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, vol. 190(12), 2018, 746. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-018-7112-6.
CGWB: Ground Water Year Book: National Capital Territory, Delhi 2019–2020. Government of India, Central Ground Water Board, State Unit Office, Delhi, March 2021. https://www.cgwb.gov.in/old_website/Regions/NCT/GWYB_2019-2020_Final.pdf [access: 26.08.2024].
Krishan G., Lohani A.K., Rao M.S., Kumar S., Takshi K.S.: Spatiotemporal variability analysis of groundwater level for water resources development and management in Northern Punjab, India. Journal of Environmental & Analytical Toxicology, vol. 5(4), 2015, 279. https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0525.1000279.
Krishan G., Rao M.S., Loyal R.S., Lohani A.K., Tuli N.K., Takshi K.S., Kumar C.P., Semwal P., Kumar S.: Groundwater level analyses of Punjab, India: A quantitative approach. Octa Journal of Environmental Research, vol. 2(3), 2014, pp. 221–226.
Kochhar A., Singh H., Sahoo S., Litoria P.K., Pateriya, B.: Prediction and forecast of pre‐monsoon and post‐monsoon groundwater level: Using deep learning and statistical modelling. Modeling Earth Systems and Environment, vol. 8(2), 2022, pp. 2317–2329. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-021-01235-z.
Sharma V., Singh M.J., Khokhar A.K.: Productivity, nutrient uptake and soil properties as influenced by integrated nutrient management in maize‐wheat cropping system under rainfed conditions of sub‐montane Punjab. Agricultural Research Journal, vol. 57(6), 2020, pp. 839–847. https://doi.org/10.5958/2395-146X.2020.00123.4.
Haroon U., Bilal B., Aijaz A., Ashraf S., Muksit Q., Sharma A.: Study of soil properties of Northern Hills (Kashmir ) in comparison to the soil properties of Northern Plains (Punjab). International Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research, vol. 8(4), 2021, pp. 1188–1193.
Vashisht B.B., Maharjan B., Sharma S., Kaur S.: Soil quality and its potential indicators under different land use systems in the Shivaliks of Indian Punjab. Sustainability, vol. 12(8), 2020, 3490. https://doi.org/10.3390/SU12083490.
Jamil M., Akhtar N., Iqbal M.M., Khan M.U.H., Muslim N., Qazi M.A.: Indexing of physico‐chemical variables and fertility status of district Sahiwal soils, Punjab, Pakistan. Soil and Environment, vol. 40(1), 2021, pp. 95–101. https://doi.org/10.25252/SE/2021/202520.
Liu J., Gao Z., Zhang Y., Sun Z., Sun T., Fan H., Wu B., Li M., Qian L.: Hydrochemical evaluation of groundwater quality and human health risk assessment of nitrate in the largest peninsula of China based on high‐density sampling: A case study of Weifang. Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 322, 2021, 129164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.129164.
Huang J., Chen H., Zheng Y., Yang Y., Zhang Y, Gao B.: Microplastic pollution in soils and groundwater: Characteristics, analytical methods and impacts. Chemical Engineering Journal, vol. 425, 2021, 131870. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.131870.
Rice E.W., Baird R.B., Eaton A.D. (eds.): Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 23rd ed., American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, Water Environment Federation, Washington, D.C., 2017.
Sarma R., Singh S.K.: Assessment of groundwater quality and human health risks of nitrate and fluoride contamination in a rapidly urbanizing region of India. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 30(19), 2023, pp. 55437–55454. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-26204-0.
Mompelat S., Jaffrézic A., Jardé E., Le Bot B.: Storage of natural water samples and preservation techniques for pharmaceutical quantification. Talanta, vol. 109, 2013, pp. 31–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2013.01.042.
Nyakilla E.E., Silingi S.N., Shen C., Jun G., Mulashani A.K., Chibura P.E.: Evaluation of source rock potentiality and prediction of total organic carbon using well log data and integrated methods of multivariate analysis, machine learning, and geochemical analysis. Natural Resources Research, vol. 31(1), 2022, pp. 619–641. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11053-021-09988-1.
Sreedevi P.D., Ahmed S., Madé B., Ledoux E., Gandolfi J.M.: Association of hydrogeological factors in temporal variations of fluoride concentration in a crystalline aquifer in India. Environmental Geology, vol. 50(1), 2006, pp. 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-005-0167-z.
Baak M., Koopman R., Snoek H., Klous S.: A new correlation coefficient between categorical, ordinal and interval variables with Pearson characteristics. Computational Statistics and Data Analysis, vol. 152, 2020, 107043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csda.2020.107043.
Hazra A., Gogtay N.: Biostatistics series module 6: Correlation and linear regression. Indian Journal of Dermatology, vol. 61(6), 2016, pp. 593–601. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5154.193662.
Mamatha P., Rao S.M.: Geochemistry of fluoride rich groundwater in Kolar and Tumkur Districts of Karnataka. Environmental Earth Science, vol. 61(1), 2010, pp. 131–142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-009-0331-y.
Bouslah S., Djemili L., Houichi L.: Water quality index assessment of Koudiat Medouar Reservoir, northeast Algeria using weighted arithmetic index method. Journal of Water and Land Development, vol. 35(1), 2017, 221. https://doi.org/10.1515/jwld-2017-0087.
Brown R.M., McClelland N.I., Deininger R.A., O’Connor M.F.: A water quality index – crashing the Psychological Barrier. [in:] Thomas W.A. (ed.), Indicators of Environmental Quality: Proceedings of a symposium held during the AAAS meeting in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, December 26–31, 1971, Environmental Science Research, vol. 1, Plenum Press, New York – London 1972, pp. 173–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-2856-8_15.
Lloyd C.: Spatial Data Analysis: An Introduction for GIS Users. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2010.
Moharir K.N., Pande C.B., Gautam V.K., Singh S.K., Rane N.L.: Integration of hydrogeological data, GIS and AHP techniques applied to delineate groundwater potential zones in sandstone, limestone and shales rocks of the Damoh district, (MP) central India. Environmental Research, vol. 228, 2023, 115832. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2023.115832.
Rajesh H.M.: Application of remote sensing and GIS in mineral resource mapping – an overview. Journal of Mineralogical and Petrological Sciences, vol. 99(3), 2004, pp. 83–103. https://doi.org/10.2465/jmps.99.83.
Nur A., Ishaku J.M., Yusuf S.N.: Groundwater flow patterns and hydrochemical facies distribution using geographical information system (GIS) in Damaturu, Northeast Nigeria. International Journal of Geosciences, vol. 3(5), 2012, pp. 1096–1106. https://doi.org/10.4236/ijg.2012.35111.
Verma A., Yadav B.K., Singh N.B.: Hydrochemical monitoring of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation use in Rapti Basin. SN Applied Sciences, vol. 2(3), 2020, 460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-2267-5.
Kumar A., Singh C.K.: Characterization of hydrogeochemical processes and fluoride enrichment in groundwater of south‐western Punjab. Water Quality, Exposure and Health, vol. 7(3), 2015, pp. 373–387. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-015-0157-7.
Singh G., Rishi M.S., Herojeet R., Kaur L., Sharma K.: Evaluation of groundwater quality and human health risks from fluoride and nitrate in semi‐arid region of northern India. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, vol. 42(7), 2020, pp. 1833–1862. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-019-00449-6.
Paikaray S., Chander S.: Geochemical variations in uranium and fluoride enriched saline groundwater around a semi‐arid region of SW Punjab, India. Applied Geochemistry, vol. 136, 2022, 105167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2021.105167.
Jagadeshan G., Kalpana L., Elango L.: Major ion signatures for identification of geochemical reactions responsible for release of fluoride from geogenic sources to groundwater and associated risk in Vaniyar River basin, Dharmapuri district, Tamil Nadu, India. Environmental Earth Sciences, vol. 74(3), 2015, pp. 2439–2450. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-015-4250-9.
Emenike C.P., Tenebe I.T., Jarvis P.: Fluoride contamination in groundwater sources in Southwestern Nigeria: Assessment using multivariate statistical approach and human health risk. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, vol. 156, 2018, pp. 391–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.03.022.
Liu Y., Jin M., Ma B., Wang J.: Distribution and migration mechanism of fluoride in groundwater in the Manas River Basin, Northwest China. Hydrogeology Journal, vol. 26(5), 2018, pp. 1527–1546. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-018-1780-8.
Sajil K.P.J., Jegathambal P., James E.J.: Factors influencing the high fluoride concentration in groundwater of Vellore District, South India. Environmental Earth Sciences, vol. 72(7), 2014, pp. 2437–2446. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-014-3152-6.
Wu J., Li P., Wang D., Ren X., Wei M.: Statistical and multivariate statistical techniques to trace the sources and affecting factors of groundwater pollution in a rapidly growing city on the Chinese Loess Plateau. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, vol. 26(6), 2019, pp. 1603–1621. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2019.1594156.
Nagaraju A., Thejaswi A., Sun L.: Statistical analysis of high fluoride groundwater hydrochemistry in Southern India: Quality assessment and Implications for source of fluoride. Environmental Engineering Science, vol. 33(7), 2016, pp. 471–477. https://doi.org/10.1089/ees.2015.0511.
Subba R.N.: High‐fluoride groundwater. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, vol. 176(1–4), 2011, pp. 637–645. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1609-y.
Thapa R., Gupta S., Kaur H., Baski R.: Assessment of groundwater quality scenario in respect of fluoride and nitrate contamination in and around Gharbar village, Jharkhand, India. HydroResearch, vol. 2, 2019, pp. 60–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydres.2019.09.002.
Parkhurst D.L., Appelo C.A.J.: Description of Input and Examples for PHREEQC Version 3 – A Computer Program for Speciation, Batch‐Reaction, One‐Dimensional Transport, and Inverse Geochemical Calculations. Techniques and Methods, 6-A43, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia 2013.
Dehghani M.H., Zarei A., Yousefi M., Asghari F.B., Haghighat G.A.: Fluoride contamination in groundwater resources in the southern Iran and its related human health risks. Desalination and Water Treatment, vol. 153, 2019, pp. 95–104. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2019.23993.
Raghav R., Raj R., Tiwari K.K., Kandwal P.: Health concerns associated with the increased fluoride concentration in drinking water: Issues and perspectives. [in:] Yadav A.K., Shirin S., Singh V.P. (eds.), Advanced Treatment Technologies for Fluoride Removal in Water: Water Purification, Water Science and Technology Library, vol. 125, Springer, Cham 2023, pp. 233–250. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38845-3_13.